Gantry 5
Hi All Just wondering why does deuterium fused with itself not make helium-4 - instead it makes a triton or a helion and a proton or a neutron. These products could then fuse with deuterium to make helium-4. What stops deuterium from fusing straight into alpha particles? Helium 4 is a collection of materials that examines the various properties of helium 4. The book presents 12 experimental studies and seven theoretical studies.
version 5.4.37 released 3 months ago (January 25th at 8:05pm)
Helium-3 3He and helium-4 4He are two isotopes of helium that appear in the Fleischmann's hypothesis and they have been targets of eager investigation from the beginning. Unfortunately, they have a peculiar property to escape easily through glass, which we usually use in experiments.
Our all-new version of Gantry has been built from the ground up to improve on the current version. It features drag-and-drop functionality, powerful administrative panels including the Layout Manager and Menu Editor, as well as dozens of other new features exclusive to the new framework. Taking advantage of the latest Web technologies, it is a faster, infinitely more flexible framework built to meet the needs of tomorrow’s Internet, today.
Grav 1.1.9+
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WordPress 4.2+
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692.99 KB / 901 downloads - Helium RocketLauncher includes a fully set up site with latest Wordpress, Gantry 5 and Heliumhelium-5.4.37-rocketlauncher_wp.zip
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Prime Source Packages
Helium 4.6
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Gantry 4
version 4.1.43 (Joomla) and 4.1.21 (WordPress)
The previous version of the Gantry framework. Still a solid and feature-rich framework, tried and trusted by millions of users!
Joomla 3.4+
| Gantry Framework Extension | v4.1.43 |
| Gantry Default Template | v4.1.43 |
WordPress 4.2+
| Gantry Framework Plugin | v4.1.21 |
| Gantry Default Theme | v4.1.21 |
Liquid helium in a transparent bowl, cooled below the Lambda point, where it exhibits properties of superfluidity | |
| Properties | |
|---|---|
| He | |
| Molar mass | 4.002602 g·mol−1 |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). | |
| Infobox references | |
Liquid helium is a physical state of helium, at very low temperatures if it is at standard atmospheric pressures. Liquid helium may show superfluidity.
At standard pressure, the chemical elementhelium exists in a liquid form only at the extremely low temperature of −269 °C (about 4 K or −452.2 °F). Its boiling point and critical point depend on which isotope of helium is present: the common isotope helium-4 or the rare isotope helium-3. These are the only two stable isotopes of helium. See the table below for the values of these physical quantities. The density of liquid helium-4 at its boiling point and a pressure of one atmosphere (101.3 kilopascals) is about 0.125 grams per cm3, or about 1/8th the density of liquid water.[1]
Liquefaction[edit]
Helium was first liquefied on July 10, 1908, by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands.[2] At that time, helium-3 was unknown because the mass spectrometer had not yet been invented. In more recent decades, liquid helium has been used as a cryogenicrefrigerant (which is used in cryocoolers), and liquid helium is produced commercially for use in superconducting magnets such as those used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Magnetoencephalography (MEG), and experiments in physics, such as low temperature Mössbauer spectroscopy.
Liquefied helium-3[edit]
A helium-3 atom is a fermion and at very low temperatures, they form two-atom Cooper pairs which are bosonic and condense into a superfluid. These Cooper pairs are substantially larger than the interatomic separation.
Characteristics[edit]
The temperature required to produce liquid helium is low because of the weakness of the attractions between the helium atoms. These interatomic forces in helium are weak to begin with because helium is a noble gas, but the interatomic attractions are reduced even more by the effects of quantum mechanics. These are significant in helium because of its low atomic mass of about four atomic mass units. The zero point energy of liquid helium is less if its atoms are less confined by their neighbors. Hence in liquid helium, its ground state energy can decrease by a naturally occurring increase in its average interatomic distance. However at greater distances, the effects of the interatomic forces in helium are even weaker.[3]
Because of the very weak interatomic forces in helium, the element remains a liquid at atmospheric pressure all the way from its liquefaction point down to absolute zero. Liquid helium solidifies only under very low temperatures and great pressures. At temperatures below their liquefaction points, both helium-4 and helium-3 undergo transitions to superfluids. (See the table below.)[3]
Liquid helium-4 and the rare helium-3 are not completely miscible.[4] Below 0.9 kelvin at their saturated vapor pressure, a mixture of the two isotopes undergoes a phase separation into a normal fluid (mostly helium-3) that floats on a denser superfluid consisting mostly of helium-4.[citation needed] This phase separation happens because the overall mass of liquid helium can reduce its thermodynamicenthalpy by separating.
At extremely low temperatures, the superfluid phase, rich in helium-4, can contain up to 6% of helium-3 in solution. This makes the small-scale use of the dilution refrigerator possible, which is capable of reaching temperatures of a few millikelvins.[4][5]
Superfluid helium-4 has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium.
Helium 4 Mass
History[edit]
In 1908, by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh-Onnes succeeded in liquifying a small quantity of helium. In 1923 he provided advice to the Canadian physicist John Cunningham McLennan who was the first to produce quantities of liquid helium almost on demand. [6]
Important early work on the characteristics of liquid helium was done by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, later extended by the American physicist Richard Feynman.
Data[edit]
| Properties of liquid helium | Helium-4 | Helium-3 |
|---|---|---|
| Critical temperature[3] | 5.2 K | 3.3 K |
| Boiling point at one atmosphere[3] | 4.2 K | 3.2 K |
| Minimum meltingpressure[7] | 25 atm | 29 atm at 0.3 K |
| Superfluid transition temperature at saturated vapor pressure | 2.17 K[8] | 1 mK in the absence of a magnetic field[9] |
Gallery[edit]
Liquid helium (in a vacuum bottle) at 4.2 K and 1 atm, boiling slowly.
Lambda point transition: as the liquid is cooled down through 2.17 K, the boiling suddenly becomes violent for a moment.
Superfluid phase at temperature below 2.17 K. In this state, the thermal conductivity is extremely high. This causes heat in the body of the liquid to be transferred to its surface so quickly that vaporization takes place only at the free surface of the liquid. Thus, there are no gas bubbles in the body of the liquid.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^'The Observed Properties of Liquid Helium at the Saturated Vapor Pressure'. University of Oregon. 2004.
- ^Wilks, p. 7
- ^ abcdWilks, p. 1.
- ^ abD. O. Edwards; D. F. Brewer; P. Seligman; M. Skertic & M. Yaqub (1965). 'Solubility of He3 in Liquid He4 at 0°K'. Phys. Rev. Lett. 15 (20): 773. Bibcode:1965PhRvL..15..773E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.15.773.
- ^Wilks, p. 244.
- ^THE LIFE OF SIR JOHN CUNNINGHAM McLENNANPh.D, F.R.S.C, F.R.S., O.B.E., K.B.E. (1867 - 1935), University of Toronto Physicshttp://www.physics.utoronto.ca/overview/history/mclennan/MCLENN3.htm
- ^Wilks, pp. 474–478.
- ^Wilks, p. 289.
- ^Dieter Vollhart & Peter Wölfle (1990). The Superfluid Phases of Helium 3. Taylor and Francis. p. 3.
- General
Superfluid Helium 4
- J. Wilks (1967). The Properties of Liquid and Solid Helium. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-851245-7.
- Freezing Physics: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the Quest for Cold, Van Delft Dirk (2007). Edita - The Publishing House Of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. ISBN978-90-6984-519-7.
External links[edit]
- Kamerlingh Onnes's 1908 article, online and analyzed on BibNum[for English analysis, click 'à télécharger']
Helium 4225